Palm Fat as Partially Hydrogenated Fat Replacement in: Fat Spread and Cocoa Butter Replacement
INTRODUCTION
Fat can only be semi solid if it contains a significant content of fatty acids that have a melting point
above room temperature. Only saturated fat and trans fat have high melting points; therefore, saturated
fat is the only practical option for fat products that are free of trans fat. The source of saturated fat can
be natural or derived from fully hydrogenated vegetable oil.Plants that produce oils that are solid at
room temperature include the oil palm tree, coconut tree, shea tree, and the cacao tree.
These oils are contained in the fruit, kernel, bean, or nut and all are high in saturated fat (50–90%)
and are solid or semisolid at room temperature.. Palm fruit oil, with a natural mixture of 50% saturated fat and 50%
unsaturated fat, is relatively soft and possesses a similar texture and stability to animal fats and PHVO.
The other highly saturated plant oils, including the kernel of the palm fruit, are hard and brittle in texture
and are traditionally useful in the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate alternatives. Palm oil and its
fractions are choices by most manufacturers due to its versatility, cost-effectiveness and nutritional
benefits. Several plants that grow in hot climates produce oils that are high in saturated fat and low in
polyunsaturated fat, which results in a semisolid texture at room temperature. All of these oils have
been produced commercially since the 1970s and have been shown to be suitable for use in baked
goods, frying, and in confectionery products. Palm oil is widely available and has the highest annual
production of any other vegetable oil, with 54 million produced in 2013, 23% more than global soybean
oil production (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012/13). This oil tends to crystallize in the preferred small
beta-prime form, providing small crystals that effectively stabilize air cells and entrap liquid oil.
In the process of hydrogenation, conditions can be selected that result in the conversion of almost all the
unsaturated fat in vegetable oils into saturated fat, while maintaining a low level of residual trans fat
(<5%). The majority of the newly created saturated fat is stearic acid, the highest melting point fatty
acid commonly found in food oils and fats and a useful source of saturated fat. Due to the high content
of saturated fat, fully hydrogenated fat has limited functionality because it is a hard, waxy fat that does
not melt at body temperature, but it can be made useful in frying and bakery applications after interesterifying
with liquid oils.
REGULATION
Based on Malaysia Food Regulation 1985:
186. Fat spread
186. Fat spread
- Fat spread shall be food in the form of a spreadable emulsion of edible fat or edible oil or both, and is capable of being used for the same purpose as butter or margarine.
- Fat spread shall contain not less than 20 percent of fat.
277. Cocoa butter
- Cocoa butter shall be the fat produced from cocoa beans, cocoa nibs or cocoa paste by a mechanical or chemical process. It shall be free from other fats and oils including mineral oil, and other substance.
- Cocoa butter-
(a) shall have-
(i) a saponification value of from 185 to 200 milligrams potassium hydroxide per gram~
(ii) an iodine value of from 32 to 42;
{iii) a melting point of not less than 29°C; and
(iv) a refractive index (40°C) of from 1.456 to 1.459; and
(b) shall not contain more than 11. 75 per cent wlw of free fatty acid (as oleic acid).
- Cocoa butter may contain permitted antioxidant.
Food Drug Administration(FDA)-Partially Hydrogenated Oils
In 2015, FDA released its final determination that Partially Hydrogenated Oils (PHOs) are not
Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS). The determination is based on extensive research into the
effects of PHOs. FDA is extending the compliance date for certain uses of partially hydrogenated
oils (PHOs). For the majority of uses of PHOs, June 18, 2018, remains the date after which
manufacturers cannot add PHOs to foods.
European Directive-Cocoa Butter Equivalent(CBE)
Since 23 June 2000, Directive 2000/36 has repealed Directive of 1973 and allows the use of other vegetable fats (CBEs) cheaper than cocoa butter to chocolate making in limit of 5% of the total weight of the finished product, at delight of some multinational companies. Are considered CBEs: illipe, palm oil, sal, shea butter and gurgikogum and mango kernels. But, in fact, it is palm oil, which is the substitute.
Since 23 June 2000, Directive 2000/36 has repealed Directive of 1973 and allows the use of other vegetable fats (CBEs) cheaper than cocoa butter to chocolate making in limit of 5% of the total weight of the finished product, at delight of some multinational companies. Are considered CBEs: illipe, palm oil, sal, shea butter and gurgikogum and mango kernels. But, in fact, it is palm oil, which is the substitute.
USAGE OF PALM OIL, PALM KERNEL OIL AND THEIR FRACTIONS AS CONFECTIONERY FATS-(CHOCOLATE)
Cocoa butter has unique physicochemical properties because of its peculiar fatty acid composition.
Major triglycerides (TAG) that present in cocoa cutter is symmetrical and have less amount of highly
unsaturated fatty acid which are palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid, but a low
amount of lauric and myristic acid. It can be into 3 types which are cocoa butter equivalent (CBE),
cocoa butter replacer (CBR) and cocoa butter substitute (CBS). Cocoa butter replacer (CBR) is one of
the developed alternatives due to its the increasing demand, shortage supply of cocoa butter, poor
quality of individual harvests, economic advantages and technological benefits. In CBR, the
composition of TAG similar but not identical to CB, which most of them produced by modification or
blending in different proportion. The example of cocoa butter replacers (CBRs) are lauric fats, palm
kernel and coconut oils, are used to totally replace cocoa butter.
unsaturated fatty acid which are palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid, but a low
amount of lauric and myristic acid. It can be into 3 types which are cocoa butter equivalent (CBE),
cocoa butter replacer (CBR) and cocoa butter substitute (CBS). Cocoa butter replacer (CBR) is one of
the developed alternatives due to its the increasing demand, shortage supply of cocoa butter, poor
quality of individual harvests, economic advantages and technological benefits. In CBR, the
composition of TAG similar but not identical to CB, which most of them produced by modification or
blending in different proportion. The example of cocoa butter replacers (CBRs) are lauric fats, palm
kernel and coconut oils, are used to totally replace cocoa butter.
CBR is another alternative to CB and was traditionally produced through selective partial hydrogenation
of liquid oils (e.g. palm olein, soyabean oil, cottonseed and rapeseed oil) using nickel catalysts with promoting
agents (e.g. sulphides) alone or followed by fractionation. Palm olein of IV equal to or greater than 68 would
be able to produce good quality high trans CBR. Such oils would have most PPP and PPO/POP TAG removed
through a good fractionation process. In chocolate application, CBR does not need tempering as it would
be able to form stable β’ polymorph easily through simple cooling. Partially hydrogenated CBR has poor flavour
release, mouth feel and ‘snap’ texture. However, it has fair gloss, good oxidative stability and is inexpensive.
Taking into account of these qualities, partially hydrogenated CBR is categorised as low quality CBR.
Partially hydrogenated and fractionated CBR, on the other hand, has good flavour release, gloss and oxidative stability.
However, it has only fair mouth release and ‘snap’ texture . By fractionating the hydrogenated CBR, solid fat content
can be increased. As CBR has similar physical properties but having different TAG from CB, it has less compatibility with
CB. CBR is normally used as a compound for coatings. The process of partial hydrogenation produces trans-fatty acids,
which gives a negative impact to health and among others, a higher risk in developing coronary heart disease.
The partially hydrogenated CBR commonly found in the markets has as much as 46% of trans-fatty acid.In view of this,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) had called for the elimination of
trans-fat in all food production. Many countries followed the WHO and FDA’s regulations to restrict production of trans-fatty
acid and made it mandatory for trans-fatty acid labelling in foods. Due to this development, manufacturers are pushed to produce
CBR with low or zero trans-fatty acid. Many confectionery companies have been able to manufacture low and zero trans CBR
using palm oil fractions such as PPO with specific fractionation conditions. It is reported that palm stearin is suitable for hard coating.
In addition, they have also reported that mid stearin can be utilised as coatings but with limited application.
of liquid oils (e.g. palm olein, soyabean oil, cottonseed and rapeseed oil) using nickel catalysts with promoting
agents (e.g. sulphides) alone or followed by fractionation. Palm olein of IV equal to or greater than 68 would
be able to produce good quality high trans CBR. Such oils would have most PPP and PPO/POP TAG removed
through a good fractionation process. In chocolate application, CBR does not need tempering as it would
be able to form stable β’ polymorph easily through simple cooling. Partially hydrogenated CBR has poor flavour
release, mouth feel and ‘snap’ texture. However, it has fair gloss, good oxidative stability and is inexpensive.
Taking into account of these qualities, partially hydrogenated CBR is categorised as low quality CBR.
Partially hydrogenated and fractionated CBR, on the other hand, has good flavour release, gloss and oxidative stability.
However, it has only fair mouth release and ‘snap’ texture . By fractionating the hydrogenated CBR, solid fat content
can be increased. As CBR has similar physical properties but having different TAG from CB, it has less compatibility with
CB. CBR is normally used as a compound for coatings. The process of partial hydrogenation produces trans-fatty acids,
which gives a negative impact to health and among others, a higher risk in developing coronary heart disease.
The partially hydrogenated CBR commonly found in the markets has as much as 46% of trans-fatty acid.In view of this,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) had called for the elimination of
trans-fat in all food production. Many countries followed the WHO and FDA’s regulations to restrict production of trans-fatty
acid and made it mandatory for trans-fatty acid labelling in foods. Due to this development, manufacturers are pushed to produce
CBR with low or zero trans-fatty acid. Many confectionery companies have been able to manufacture low and zero trans CBR
using palm oil fractions such as PPO with specific fractionation conditions. It is reported that palm stearin is suitable for hard coating.
In addition, they have also reported that mid stearin can be utilised as coatings but with limited application.
The physico-chemical properties of PMF, palm stearin and olive oil blend in which the blend was found to exhibit better oxidative
stability and may be suitable as a CB alternative. Blended palm stearin with mango seed can produce CBR without trans fatty acid.
The study found that this CBR blend could overcome tempering challenges especially in tropical countries. Earlier study by
Zaidul et al. (2007) found that palm kernel oil (PKO) is suitable for CBR when it is fractionated with supercritical carbon dioxide
and then blended with other oils such as palm oil and commercial stearic and oleic fatty acids. This method produces CBR with
lower lauric and myristic acids.
stability and may be suitable as a CB alternative. Blended palm stearin with mango seed can produce CBR without trans fatty acid.
The study found that this CBR blend could overcome tempering challenges especially in tropical countries. Earlier study by
Zaidul et al. (2007) found that palm kernel oil (PKO) is suitable for CBR when it is fractionated with supercritical carbon dioxide
and then blended with other oils such as palm oil and commercial stearic and oleic fatty acids. This method produces CBR with
lower lauric and myristic acids.
COCOA BUTTER REPLACER(CBR)
Cocoa Butter Replacer is categorized under Cocoa Butter Alternative(CBA). A need to find an alternative of
Cocoa Butter(CB) was done since the unavailability and high cost in obtaining CB. CBR also contain
fats that can fulfil the function of CB completely or partially. Confectionary products such as chocolate
with the usage of CBR must be labelled as Cocoa Butter Replacer. CBR serves the function of CB and is
cheaper than CB. The processing of CBR is similar with CB and some country allows the usage of CBR
such as the use of non-animal and non-synthetic fat in chocolate products(McGinley, 1991).CBR has the
same fatty acid compositions and similar but not identical triglyceride structure as CB.
Cocoa Butter Replacer is categorized under Cocoa Butter Alternative(CBA). A need to find an alternative of
Cocoa Butter(CB) was done since the unavailability and high cost in obtaining CB. CBR also contain
fats that can fulfil the function of CB completely or partially. Confectionary products such as chocolate
with the usage of CBR must be labelled as Cocoa Butter Replacer. CBR serves the function of CB and is
cheaper than CB. The processing of CBR is similar with CB and some country allows the usage of CBR
such as the use of non-animal and non-synthetic fat in chocolate products(McGinley, 1991).CBR has the
same fatty acid compositions and similar but not identical triglyceride structure as CB.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS/MECHANISM
The process of producing Cocoa Butter Replacer(CBR) can be either by fractionation or hydrogenation
process.Partial hydrogenation of palm olein with no trisaturates produced a useful margarine bases while
nearly/fully hydrogenation of lauric fats usually Palm Kernel Oil(PKO) will produced a products with
drastic Solid Fat Content(SFC) which can change with narrow temperature range. The steepness between
SFC and melting point is necessary to identify minimum quality requirement of a good cocoa butter replacer.
The combination of hydrogenation and interesterification process that match a good level can produce a
useful replacer.
process.Partial hydrogenation of palm olein with no trisaturates produced a useful margarine bases while
nearly/fully hydrogenation of lauric fats usually Palm Kernel Oil(PKO) will produced a products with
drastic Solid Fat Content(SFC) which can change with narrow temperature range. The steepness between
SFC and melting point is necessary to identify minimum quality requirement of a good cocoa butter replacer.
The combination of hydrogenation and interesterification process that match a good level can produce a
useful replacer.
CBR was made from PKO where the fatty acid composition consists higher amount of lauric acid. However,
the composition of stearic acid and oleic acid are lower than cocoa butter. In order to produce CBR, the
Lauric acid content in PKO need to be reduced while the composition of Stearic and Oleic acid need to
be increased. PKO undergo fractionation process by using supercritical fluid in order for it to be used as
blending agent with CBR. PKO is a high quality food-grade oil to the extent that it can provide a
replacement for cocoa butter.
the composition of stearic acid and oleic acid are lower than cocoa butter. In order to produce CBR, the
Lauric acid content in PKO need to be reduced while the composition of Stearic and Oleic acid need to
be increased. PKO undergo fractionation process by using supercritical fluid in order for it to be used as
blending agent with CBR. PKO is a high quality food-grade oil to the extent that it can provide a
replacement for cocoa butter.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS/MECHANISM (FAT SPREAD)
FAT SPREAD
The shape, size, and arrangement of the crystals network were influenced by the oil or fat phase, which
then determines the melting characteristics of the products and provides the forms and texture of the
finished spreads. PO, PKO, and their fractions are important fats in reduced fat spread formulations,
mainly from an economic standpoint, nutrition and product performance and characteristics .
then determines the melting characteristics of the products and provides the forms and texture of the
finished spreads. PO, PKO, and their fractions are important fats in reduced fat spread formulations,
mainly from an economic standpoint, nutrition and product performance and characteristics .
CHOCOLATE SPREAD
Traditionally, chocolate spread was formulated using partially hydrogenated soft oil which contained trans-fatty acid
of between 0.7%-11.1% in the product. Chocolate spread can be formulated using palm oil, palm olein or red palm olein
with other soft oils or butterfat. Chocolate spread can be divided into two categories i) oil emulsion or ii) water-in-oil emulsion
for spread containing fat of less than 40%.
These oils are mixed together with other ingredients such as skimmed or whole milk powder, cocoa powder,
sugar, salt, emulsifier, and flavour. Chocolate spread is formulated to contain a low amount of solids at
room temperature. Due to this specification, the product correlates with oil separation as it contains a
significant amount of liquid oil. El-kalyoubi et al (2011) studied the effect of replacing palm oil in
conventional soft chocolate spread with palm olein and cottonseed oil. The study found that 25%
replacement of palm olein was the closest to the control sample in terms of rheological properties
and this replacement was more acceptable by sensory evaluators. Red palm oil was also used as
confectionery fats in a study as it contains beta-carotene which has pro-vitamin A functionality. In
addition, incorporated palm tocotrienol in the palm-based chocolate spread formulation to reduce lipid
oxidation process which occurs during storage and thereby improving shelf-life of the product.
Traditionally, chocolate spread was formulated using partially hydrogenated soft oil which contained trans-fatty acid
of between 0.7%-11.1% in the product. Chocolate spread can be formulated using palm oil, palm olein or red palm olein
with other soft oils or butterfat. Chocolate spread can be divided into two categories i) oil emulsion or ii) water-in-oil emulsion
for spread containing fat of less than 40%.
These oils are mixed together with other ingredients such as skimmed or whole milk powder, cocoa powder,
sugar, salt, emulsifier, and flavour. Chocolate spread is formulated to contain a low amount of solids at
room temperature. Due to this specification, the product correlates with oil separation as it contains a
significant amount of liquid oil. El-kalyoubi et al (2011) studied the effect of replacing palm oil in
conventional soft chocolate spread with palm olein and cottonseed oil. The study found that 25%
replacement of palm olein was the closest to the control sample in terms of rheological properties
and this replacement was more acceptable by sensory evaluators. Red palm oil was also used as
confectionery fats in a study as it contains beta-carotene which has pro-vitamin A functionality. In
addition, incorporated palm tocotrienol in the palm-based chocolate spread formulation to reduce lipid
oxidation process which occurs during storage and thereby improving shelf-life of the product.
In hard chocolate, low or zero trans-fatty acid CBR is the preferable as cocoa butter replacer.
Low and zero trans CBR can be manufactured from fat similar to CBE but possesses higher
asymmetrical disaturated, monounsaturated TAG (SSU) such as PPO, whereby P is palmitic and
O is oleic acid which can be achieved, with special fractionation conditions of palm fractions.
In soft chocolate or chocolate spread, oil separation is one of the important factors to be considered
when formulating chocolate spread. To be considered as good stability chocolate spread, there should
not be any development of oil separation in the spread after 6-12 months of storage. Thus, the distinct
ratio of solid and liquid is required to develop this product.
Low and zero trans CBR can be manufactured from fat similar to CBE but possesses higher
asymmetrical disaturated, monounsaturated TAG (SSU) such as PPO, whereby P is palmitic and
O is oleic acid which can be achieved, with special fractionation conditions of palm fractions.
In soft chocolate or chocolate spread, oil separation is one of the important factors to be considered
when formulating chocolate spread. To be considered as good stability chocolate spread, there should
not be any development of oil separation in the spread after 6-12 months of storage. Thus, the distinct
ratio of solid and liquid is required to develop this product.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, partially hydrogenated fat trans-fatty acids, which gives a negative impact to health and
among others, a higher risk in developing coronary heart disease. Thus, palm fat which is from palm oil
and its fractions are choices by most manufacturers due to its versatility, cost-effectiveness and nutritional
benefits and have it has been shown to be suitable for use in baked goods, frying, and in confectionery products.
Palm oil is widely available and has the highest annual production compared to other vegetable oil. Furthermore,
the product of palm oil such as Palm Kernel Oil(PKO) can be used to produced cocoa butter replacer, CBR where
it exhibit same functionality as cocoa butter, CB. Spread that was incorporated with palm tocotrienol in the palm-based
chocolate spread formulation to reduce lipid oxidation process which occurs during storage and thereby improving shelf-life
of the product.
among others, a higher risk in developing coronary heart disease. Thus, palm fat which is from palm oil
and its fractions are choices by most manufacturers due to its versatility, cost-effectiveness and nutritional
benefits and have it has been shown to be suitable for use in baked goods, frying, and in confectionery products.
Palm oil is widely available and has the highest annual production compared to other vegetable oil. Furthermore,
the product of palm oil such as Palm Kernel Oil(PKO) can be used to produced cocoa butter replacer, CBR where
it exhibit same functionality as cocoa butter, CB. Spread that was incorporated with palm tocotrienol in the palm-based
chocolate spread formulation to reduce lipid oxidation process which occurs during storage and thereby improving shelf-life
of the product.
REFERENCES
Brinkmann B (1992). Kakaobutteraustauschfette. Zucker and Stisswarenwirtschaft, 8: 268-270.
Dian, N. L. (2018). Palm Oil And Palm Kernel Oil: Versatile Ingredients For Food Applications. Journal of Oil Palm Research,29(4), 487-511. El-Kalyoubi, M., Khallaf, M. F., Abdelrashid, A., & Mostafa, E. M. (2011). Quality characteristics of chocolate: containing some fat replacer. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 56(2), 89-96 http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.aoas.2011.05.009 Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat). Retrieved December 23, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm449162.htm McGinley L (1991). Analysis and quality control for processing and processed fats. In Analysis of oilseeds, fats and fatty
foods (JB Rossel and JL Pritchard Eds). Elsevier Applied Science, London, 441-498. M.M Chakrabarty. (2003) Chemistry and Technology of Oil & Fat. Allied Publisher PVT.Limited. ISBN 81-7764-495-5. Page 44 Ph. Lebailly., et al. “ European Directive Related to Chocolate Composition is Unfair For the African Cocoa Planters”. EC Agriculture 2.4 (2015): 384-390. Smith, K. W. (2012). Confectionery fats. Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds (Garti, N and Widlak, N R eds.). AOCS Press, Champaign, USA. p. 475-495. Zaidul ISM, Norulaini NAN, Omar AKM and Smith Jr. RL (2007c). Blending of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extracted palm kernel oil fractions and palm oil to obtain cocoa butter replacers. Journal of Food Engineering, 78: 1397- 1409
Brinkmann B (1992). Kakaobutteraustauschfette. Zucker and Stisswarenwirtschaft, 8: 268-270.
Dian, N. L. (2018). Palm Oil And Palm Kernel Oil: Versatile Ingredients For Food Applications. Journal of Oil Palm Research,29(4), 487-511. El-Kalyoubi, M., Khallaf, M. F., Abdelrashid, A., & Mostafa, E. M. (2011). Quality characteristics of chocolate: containing some fat replacer. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 56(2), 89-96 http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.aoas.2011.05.009 Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat). Retrieved December 23, 2018, from https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm449162.htm McGinley L (1991). Analysis and quality control for processing and processed fats. In Analysis of oilseeds, fats and fatty
foods (JB Rossel and JL Pritchard Eds). Elsevier Applied Science, London, 441-498. M.M Chakrabarty. (2003) Chemistry and Technology of Oil & Fat. Allied Publisher PVT.Limited. ISBN 81-7764-495-5. Page 44 Ph. Lebailly., et al. “ European Directive Related to Chocolate Composition is Unfair For the African Cocoa Planters”. EC Agriculture 2.4 (2015): 384-390. Smith, K. W. (2012). Confectionery fats. Cocoa Butter and Related Compounds (Garti, N and Widlak, N R eds.). AOCS Press, Champaign, USA. p. 475-495. Zaidul ISM, Norulaini NAN, Omar AKM and Smith Jr. RL (2007c). Blending of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extracted palm kernel oil fractions and palm oil to obtain cocoa butter replacers. Journal of Food Engineering, 78: 1397- 1409
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